AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EARLY CHURCH FATHERS

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EARLY CHURCH FATHERS

By: Daniel McMillin

Throughout church history, there have been many prominent theologians who have advanced the Christian faith in profound ways, oftentimes, the most important figures are referred to as the “Church Fathers.”[1] Many of these figures were influential theologians, bishops or scholars whose writings explained key Scriptural principles in the early Church. They were not all ordained, not all of them became saints, and they were not infallible. But they had powerful communication skills, personal holiness, and doctrinal orthodoxy, so we honor them unofficially as “fathers” for their proximity to the Apostles, their explanations of how to understand and apply Scripture, and their ability to teach the Catholic faith. The era of the Church Fathers, often called “the Patristic period,” ended in 749 AD with the death of St. John of Damascus. They are generally divided into four categories based on when or where they lived: the Apostolic Fathers, the Greek (Eastern) Fathers, the Latin (Western) Fathers, and others such as the Desert Fathers. In this paper, I will survey some of the early Church Fathers and their significant contributions in the realm of theology.

IRENAEUS OF LYONS

Irenaeus of Lyons was an early Christian theologian and bishop in Lyons (130-202 AD). “Irenaeus may be described as the first great theologian of the Early Church; indeed, he has a greater right than any other to the title of the founder of the theology of the Church. All the others build on the foundation which he has laid.”[2] He was born in Asia Minor. He was one generation removed from the apostles after being trained under Polycarp, who possibly knew the apostles, namely, John. The Johannine tradition may have been passed down to Irenaeus from Polycarp who would have received it from the source. It may be said that Irenaeus forms a bridge between the sub-apostolic period and the more developed church of the 3rd century. Irenaeus may have trained under Justin Martyr when in Rome. He was a presbyter in Gaul and was carrying correspondence to Rome when persecution broke out in Lyons (177 AD). Irenaeus later replaced bishop Pothinus after his death. Irenaeus’ best-known work is Against Heresies written in AD 180 which was a five-volume defense of the Christian faith against the Gnostic heresy which helped define early Christian orthodoxy for the Church. “In opposition to Gnostic dualism, Irenaeus teaches that there is but one God who is the creator of the world and the Father of Jesus Christ, that there is one divine economy of salvation and one revelation. The visible creation is good, not evil, and the body will rise.”[3] He also advanced the doctrine of “recapitulation” which is the teaching that views Christ as the incarnate New Adam. Jesus renews all creation through the incarnation and His work of salvation.[4] Irenaeus also emphasized the canon of Scripture.

TERTULLIAN

Tertullian was a North African Christian author and apologist (160-220 AD). Tertullian is described as the founder or father of ecclesiastical Latin. He was the first major Christian theologian to write in Latin.  The life of Tertullian is based upon the writings of Jerome and Eusebius of Caesarea. Tertullian was born in Africa and his father was a Roman official, a centurion. He was well educated and knew how to write in both Greek and Latin. In addition, he was familiar with philosophy, literature, history, logic, psychology. He was trained as a rhetorician. Tertullian became a jurisconsult at Rome and was a presbyter in Cartridge later after his conversion. He would travel to Rome,

Greece, and the Middle East. Tertullian wrote against the Gnostic heresy in a series of treaties. He provided a well detailed discussion of Christian belief.[5] He also write an Apology that marked the climax of Christian efforts in the 2nd century which provided a defense of the Christian faith and a promotion of the gospel over and against paganism. He sought to encourage early Christian Martyrs to remain faithful even when their life is on the line. He also wrote to convince pagans to abandon error so they may accept the truth of the gospel. Tertullian also wrote theological refutations against the heresies of Marcion and modalism.[6] He is the first to use the term trinitas (Trinity) to describe the Godhead, that is, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Tertullian “remains an important witness to early efforts to domicile Christian faith in the contemporary culture.”[7] 

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

Clement of Alexandria was an early Christian writer (160-214). “Clement is regarded as the first self-conscious theologian and ethicist, a pioneer in Christian mysticism, and a contributor to the development of the concept of purgatory.” [8] He most known for his efforts to connect the Christian system (Christianity) and the Greek culture (Hellenism).

It should be noted that Clement’s attitudes toward philosophy and pagan culture were controversial. He was both praised as being enlightened but was also criticized for diluting the Christian message. Much of Clement’s life is unknown since there is only one biography to reference and supplemental texts written by teachers that describe his life. With that said, many of the facts that we “know” about Clement of Alexandria are indefinite. He was most likely born in Athens. He was a man on a mission seeking to find understanding of God. On this journey, he would travel all over the Mediterranean where he would receive an education at a Christian school in Alexandria. It has been suggested that this school may have been led by Pantaenus. He would also study in Italy Palestine, and Egypt. His teachers, according to Clement, gained their interpretations of Scripture from and discourses from the apostles. Clement would travel to Cappadoica in 202 during the Roman persecution under Septimius Severus. Clement was a man of culture, that is, he was a Hellenistic Christian.  Clement would provide instruction to Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. His most notable writings are the Protrepticus which is a book that encourages Greeks to leave paganism and convert to Christianity, the Paedagogus, which shows how Christ was a moral teacher, and finally, the Stromata, which is a collection of thoughts on Christianity, philosophy, and the pursuit of true knowledge.

ORIGEN

Origen of Alexandria is possibly the most prolific author of the early Church (185-254 AD). He was a profound theologian and biblical scholar who was highly influential in the school of Alexandira in Egypt. He was born in a Christian family in Alexandria. His father, Leonidas, was martyred in 202-203 under Roman persecution. Origen would also suffer persecution under Decius. Origen was dedicated to the study of philosophy under most notably Ammonius Saccas. He received a Christian and secular education where he would train in Alexandria where eclectic Neoplatonism was popular. In addition, he would not only read but would also memorize the Scriptures on a daily basis. He became the head of the catechetical school and would later teach advanced students.

Origen was a profound writer and lecturer. He would travel when he taught and many of those lectures would be recorded and transcribed. It is stated that “Origen was perhaps the most prolific writer in antiquity, producing by dictation some 2,000 works: commentaries of almost every book of the Bible.”[9] Possibly he most well-known piece of literature is his work On First Principles, which functions as a systematic theology of the Christian faith. Many highly respect Origen as a most profound Christian thinker and theologian but they are also hesitant to agree with everything that he has written, which in many ways is how one ought to read any fallible source if they are seeking truth and attempting to be critical thinkers. “Although Origen professed commitment to the apostolic faith, several of his teachings were alter deemed heretical.”[10] The best way to sum up the life of Origen is to use his words. Origen simply stated who he wanted to be in his homilies. “I want to be a man of the church…to be called by the name…of Christ, and to bear that name which is blessed on the earth.”[11] 

EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

Eusebius of Caesarea was an early Church Historian and bishop of Caesarea (263-339 AD). He was also widely respected as a biblical exegete and apologist for Christianity over and against paganism. Eusebius was trained in Caesarea (Palestine) where Origen had worked and where he would study under Pamphilus, they would later collaborate and write A Defense of Origen. He was ordained bishop of Caesarea in 313 AD. He would suffer imprisonment and exile at the hands of Diocletian. Participated in the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) and worked against the pro-Nicene figures in the years following the council. Some of Eusebius’ early wrings were Against Hierocles which was a short apology that defend the miracles and signs of Jesus, Onomasticon which was a study of the Biblical geography, and the Chronicle which was a chronology of Biblical and historical events. These writings were excellent pieces of scholarship that reflect his interest in producing the truth of the Christian religion.

“His many works reveal his attention to the literal or historical interpretation of scripture rather than to allegorical exegesis or theological reflection, in spite of his admiration for Origen.”[12] Eusebius was a prolific author, in fact, he once stated that “works are plainer than words.” His most notable contribution was his Ecclesiastical History also known as the Church History. This work provided the fullest details concerning the dispensation and divinity of the Son throughout church history, that is to say, it provides evidence of God’s involvement since the establishment of the church. This work was possibly first written around 300 AD as a first draft but then later revised in light of new evidence, especially the Dioecian persecution in 303 AD and Constantine’s tolerance of Christianity through the Edict of Milan in 313 AD.

BASIL OF CAESAREA

Basil of Caesarea, or Basil the Great, was a bishop in Cappadocian Caesarea (330-379). He is known as one of the Cappadocian church fathers. Basil studied rhetoric in Caesarea and Constantinople and studied philosophy in Athens. Basil was the brother of Gregory Nyssa and was a contemporary of his fellow theologians Gregory of Nazianzus and Julian “the Apostate.”[13] Interestingly, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus would compile select passages from Origen together called the Philocalia. Macrina, his sister,

encouraged him to dedicate himself to Christian service and work. His own monastic life was brief as he moved into Christian leadership; always advocated for monastic life, organizing communities in Cappadocia and nearby provinces. He was heavily involved in ascetic groups in Annesi. He was well known and beloved as a Christian orator. One of his most notable sermons was a series on the 6 days of creation in Genesis called the Hexameron. “Basil’s writings are many and of uncommonly high quality. His style and arguments indicate his rhetorical training. His many letters are a gold mine of information about his life and also about the social, economic, political, and theological contexts of the period. They reveal him as both generous and cunning; they make clear that he would have been an unusual friend and a feared enemy.”[14] He was an assistant of Eusebius of Caesarea and later succeeded him. He is highly regarded as an able administrator and church leader. Basil formulated his own monastic rule to guide the monastic communities. Basil of Caesarea, alongside his fellow Cappadocian theologians, opposed the Arian heresy, that is the doctrine that Jesus is the created Son of God —Arius: “there was when he [the Logos] was not.” Basil’s articulation of the doctrine of the Trinity helped form the appropriate grammar to speak of the unity and individuality of the Triune God.

GREGORY OF NYSSA

Gregory of Nyssa was the bishop of Nyssa and is the youngest of the Cappadocian fathers (331/40-395 AD). Gregory was the younger brother of Basil the Great and was educated primarily by Basil and influenced by the culture of his time. Balas described his education background in this way, “Unlike Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, he did not study at the great centers of higher learning, but on his own he absorbed, remarkably well, the rhetorical and philosophical culture of his time, including much of what we would call ‘natural sciences.”[15] Gregory not only studied rhetoric but also taught it. Gregory gave up the privileges of being a lectorate in the church to become a rhetor. He

turned to Christian life and work and even entered the monastery which was founded by his brother Basil. He later became the bishop of Nyssa in 371 and would be exiled from Nyssa by Emperor Valens 5 years later. In 378, Gregory would return to Nyssa after Valens was deceased. Gregory of Nyssa was a leading figure in the Council of Constantinople (381 AD). In fact, Theodosius I appointed Gregory as one of the bishops who would commune with individuals who recognized orthodox doctrine. He was a pro-Nicene defender of the divinity of the Son and Spirit. Gregory would use Hellenistic philosophy, like many early Christian authors, to discuss Christian theology. He did this in an effort to make Christian theology superior over Greek philosophy. One of his most notable writings is his book On Not Three Gods where he discusses the threeness of God. He concludes the following, “since on the one hand the idea of cause differentiates the Persons of the Holy Trinity, declaring that one exists without a Cause, and another is of the Cause; and since on the one hand the Divine nature is apprehended by every conception as unchangeable and undivided, for these reasons we properly declare the Godhead to be one, and God to be one, and employ in the singular all other names which express Divine attributes.”[16]

GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS

Gregory of Nazianzus, also known as “Gregory the Theologian,” was the bishop of Constantinople (329-389 AD). Gregory is the final Cappadocian father on this list and “is considered by Eastern Orthodox as one of the hierarchs of the faith.”[17] He studied rhetoric and philosophy in Caesarea and Athens and became the presbyter of Nazianzus in 361 AD and later was the bishop of Constantinople in 380 AD where he would serve as president of the Council of Constantinople in 381 AD. The Constantinople creed were

doctrines that were first taught by Gregory and then later became popularized through the confession of the creed. Gregory was regarded as a man of the word and is remembered as a heavily influential theologian. He expounded the theological ideas that were first introduced by Basil of Caesarea and then presented by Gregory of Nyssa. “Doctrinally, he and the other Cappadocians fashioned a Trinitarian view that emphasized both the one nature of God and the three persons of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.”[18] Gregory of Nazianzus insisted upon the divinity of the Hoy Spirit and defended the full humanity and divinity of the Son of God. He is regarded as the champion of theosis theology which is the view that the incarnation and salvation are balanced. The Son became man so that man could become God. His writings are Orations is possibly his most important contribution. These 44 discourses were sermons he had preached in a church service or festival that were later passed down. These orations are some of the best resources for knowing the personality and oratory skills of Gregory. His writings were heavily influential in Eastern Orthodoxy.

AMBROSE

Ambrose of Milan is known as one of the four doctors of the western church, alongside Gregory the Great, Jerome, and Augustine (340-397 AD). Ambrose was a very prolific writer of sermons, polemical works, and dogmatic treatises. He came from a prestigious and distinguished Christian background. He was born in Trier, Germany and his father was governor of Britain, Spain, Gaul. He was educated in Rome and began practicing law at Sirium. He then later was appointed governor of Aemilia and Liguria. Ambrose was meant for service in the imperial army until he was baptized and appointed as the

bishop of Milan in 373 AD. There was a riot that broke out concerning the successor of the deceased bishop Auxentius. At this point, Ambrose intervened and sought to bring order to the situation. In light of these events, he was then chosen for the episcopal. Swift notes that “In preparation for his episcopal duties, Ambrose threw himself into he study of theology and scripture under the direction...the new bishop’s talent and inclinations were not in the field of speculative thought, but he quickly achieved a reputation as a pastor of souls, a firm defender of the orthodoxy of Nicaea, and an effective preacher. His rhetorical style, characterized by long periodic sentences interspersed with direct and pithy statements, was rich in imagery derived form nature, scripture, and classical sources.”[19] Ambrose was strongly pro-Nicene and was heavily involved in important councils and gatherings, like the Council of Aquileia (381). One of his most well-known writings is a moral and ascetical piece On the Duties of the Clergy, this provided teachings that addressed clergymen. Ambrose was very influential on those who were entering the ministry, his most famous student was Augustine of Hippo who he baptized in 387 AD.

JEROME

Jerome was a scholar, translator, polemicist, and ascetic (348-420 AD). He was born in Stridon, Dalmatia. He was classically educated in Rome under Aelius Donatus. He was baptized at Rome about 365 AD. He traveled to the east in 372 AD and stayed in Antioch where he studied Greek, moved to Chalcis where he studied Hebrew, and then returned to Antioch to become an ordained priest by Paulinus. While in Antioch, he would listen to lectures from Apollinaris of Laodicea. He accompanied his bishop to the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 AD. It was at this council that he became

acquainted with Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa. Many of Jerome’s biblical

studies were inspired by hearing Gregory of Nazianzus while in Constantinople. Jerome served as a secretary to Bishop Damasus of Rome (382-383). While in Rome, Jerome he became a spiritual counselor of a group of noble Roman women. He would depart from Rome after Damascus’s death and Siricus’s election in 384 AD. He eventually settled in Bethlehem in 386 AD where he was head of a monastery. While in Bethlehem, Jerome would devote himself to the study of Scripture and write extensive volumes on God’s word. Jerome is most known for his production of the Latin Vulgate which was a Latin translation of the Greek and Hebrew Scriptures. The Vulgate was heavily influential throughout church history since it became the Bible of the Western World. “Jerome is a major bridge figure in the transition to the Middle Ages in the West. Although his reputation grew above all from his work on the Vulgate, his scriptural commentaries and his translation and expansion of Eusebius’s Chronicle would also prove to have a substantial influence. His views on monasticism, celibacy, the virginity of Mary, and the cult of saints prevailed in medieval Catholic piety.”[20]

AUGUSTINE

Augustine of Hippo is possibly the most important and influential church father on this list (354-430 AD). He is “one of the most significant Christian theologians in the Christian tradition.”[21] He was born in Thagaste, North Africa and died in Hippo, North Africa. He was reared in a Christian home, where his mother was a Christian and his father would later convert. He was educated and worked as professor of rhetoric in Thagaste, Carthage, and Milan. He become a Manichaean and followed Neoplatonism. While in Milan, Augustine met Ambrose who baptized him in 387 AD. In Hippo, Augustine was

appointed presbyter and then later bishop in 396 AD. He was an effective administrator and church leader, and most notably, a prolific author. He wrote over 500 sermons extant, and possibly 3000-4000 composed in total. In his Retractions he lists 93 works comprised of 232 individual books. His works were composed of dogmatic treatises, apologetic works, commentaries, polemical texts, and general works on both the Old and New Testament. Today, there are around 300 letters that survive. Three of Augustine’s most influential and notable works are the Confessions, an autobiography that gives insight into his faith journey, City of God, a contrast between the city of humanity (the world) and the city of God, and On the Trinity, an incredible contribution on the doctrine of the trinity. “The importance of Augustine has been profound to our own time. His powerful and rhetorically vivid description of the saga of humanity dominated the theological imagination of the Christian west form the medieval period forward. The institutions and attitudes of the west, both ecclesiastical and political, have formed around Augustine’s interpretation of original sin, sacramental grace, the unruliness of sexuality, and the natural world as flawed along with human nature.”[22]

END NOTES

[1] An excellent resource for early Church history is Everett Ferguson’s Church History: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005).

[2] Brunner, The Mediator, 249.

[3] Mary T. Clark, “Irenaeus of Lyons” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 587.

[4] Irenaeus, Against Heresies (Oxford: James Parker & Co., 1872).

[5] Tertullian, Prescription Against Heretics, Against Hermogenes, On the Flesh of Christ, On the Soul, On the Resurrection of the Flesh.

[6] Tertullian, Against Marcion, Against Praxeas.

[7] Robert D. Sider, “Tertullian” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 1107.

[8] Walter H. Wagner, “Clement of Alexandria” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 264.

[9] Robert J. Daly, “Origen” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 835.

[10] Matt Jenson, Theology in the Democracy of the Dead: A Dialogue with the Living Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2019), 18.

[11] Origen, Homilies, 16.

[12] Rebecca Lyman, “Eusebius of Caesarea” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 400.

[13] Gregory of Nazianzus, Oration 43 “On St. basil the Great” and Gregory of Nyssa, Ecomium on His Brother Basil.

[14] Frederick W. Norris, “Basil of Caesarea” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 170.

[15] David L. Balas, “Gregory of Nyssa” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 495.

[16] Gregory of Nyssa, “On Not Three Gods” in Gregory of Nyssa: Dogmatic Treatises, Etc., ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. Henry Austin Wilson, vol. 5 of A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1893), 336.

[17] Fredrick W. Norris, “Gregory of Nazianzus” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 491-492.

[18] Norris, “Gregroy of Nazianzus,” 494.

[19] Louis J. Swift, “Ambrose” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 42.

[20] Michael P. McHugh, “Jerome” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 608.

[21] C. Douglas Weaver, Rady Roladan-Figueroa, Brandon Frick, Exploring Christian Heritage: A reader in history and Theology (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2012), 34.

[22] Margaret R. Miles, “Augustine” in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 153.

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